Cardiac output
Introduction Cardiac output (CO) is the mechanism by which blood circulates throughout the body, particularly to the brain and other vital organs. It is the amount of blood pumped by the heart every minute. Modulating both the heart rate (HR) and the stroke volume (SV) alters both the cardiac output and the body's demand for oxygen, such as when exercising. Because every tissue in the body depends on the heart pumping blood for nourishment, any cardiovascular dysfunction has the potential to result in significant morbidity and mortality. As a result, the regulation of cardiac output is subject to a complex mechanism that involves the autonomic nervous system, endocrine, and paracrine signaling pathways. Heart disease is the leading cause of death in the United States and affects nearly 30 million people each year. There are a number of ways to determine the degree of functional impairment, which informs diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. A clinician should be familiar with the f...